Probably many of you know your own history, the history of Circassians in Middle East. As for me, the book “CIRCASSIANS IN SYRIA” written by Anzor Kushhabiy, I have recently read staggered me a lot! Circassians in the Middle East had really very accessible opportunities to create not just autonomies but independent states! However, all failed. Why, so? All together we have to think. Why we cannot do anything for the sake of us, not for the sake of our neighbors ‘brothers, hospitable Moslem peoples’ and so on.

Circassians who remained within the Caucasus almost didn’t have any opportunity to build their autonomy in own land. All that we have there made by occasion for us by pioneer communists in 20s of last century. Probably the problem is our Circassian generous-hearted, chivalrous spirit. In the article you’ll find some kind of prove for this statement. We did so much good for the people who caused to us really disastrous harm. But it seems we have at least 2 levels of generosity and chivalry. The highest is of that persons like Amin Samgugh, who fought against 1^st level chivalrous ‘Arabian’ Circassians. Undoubtedly, Amin Samgugh is a double hero of Circassian nation! Only because of such persons as he was we are still alive as ethnic group on the Earth. Hope you’ll comprehend my view of point.

Circassian community during French Mandate.

After the occupation of Syria the French authorities directed by old imperial motto ‘separate and rule’ divided the country in few small states, founded basically on religious base. The direction in those states was given to the French governors. Whole the power to rule over the Mandate’s territory was concentrated in the hands of Supreme Commissar. Throughout all the Syria reigned the tyranny of French administration; the people forced to different groundless payments, arrested in high quantities shootings etc. The foundation of such a kind of authorities was faced to various kinds of rebellions and Arab people’s guerilla movement. Occupant authorities went through the way of enforcing the military powers in the region – they increased the number of troops from 7 thousands onto 70 thousands soldiers, and became fiercely suppress the patriotic movement.

For not numerous Circassian communities it happened to be in a very difficult situation at that time, because the Arabs perceived them only as a remains of an old Osman supremacy. Neighbors attacked it more frequently. The relations with Drouz (?) people worsened. These circumstanced were used by French authorities, which strove to create the support among local population. As it’s known in colonial politics of France were paid a special attention towards ethnic minorities.

During the war one of the eminent French officer, captain Caullae (?) brought up an idea to enlist masses of Middle East Circassians to serve in French Army. Realizing his goal first he recruited a group of Circassians from the enemies of Mustafa Kemal.

The first Supreme Commissar Goureau (?) (1920-1922) Went to the Kuneytra with the aim to have negotiations with Circassian leaders in person. Concerning to Goureau’s visit the general of French army afterwards wrote: ‘He (Goureau (?)) had to assure them (Circassians) that the France never was ungrateful, and encourage their devotion’1. Kaymakam (?) of Kuneytra (?) and other leaders of community with appropriate honors met the French deputation. The resolution of the negotiations was to form the Circassian cavalry included in French troops. The reasons why Circassians agreed were the same they did while Osmans’ supremacy: not numerous community of different ethnic origin was surrounded by time-to-time hostile population, and therefore needed the support of government. Also the significant reason was that military service for Circassians was usual thing.

General Catrou (?) based the transfer of Circassians into French service by following: ‘…Circassian people with their thirst for the war, courage and devotion towards Islam truly served for their sovereign and Khalif (?). But vicissitudes of the war, which divided their spiritual and political devotion towards commander of orthodox Moslems, made this colony foreign ethnic island between Arabic Syria and separated it from Turkey. From that times, being aware their isolation and the danger of oppressions from the Damascus government, during the Feysal’s (?) ruling Circassians looked for the point of support from French government and didn’t expect an entering of our divisions into Damascus in 1920, to proclaim themselves as our adherents. After the Feysal’s (?) fall, they openly joined to the Mandate and stood by us against rebels of Khauran (?), their neighbors. From that times that powerful, diligent and faithful colony, which I organized with the collaboration of Damascus government, having respect to its individuality, was the factor of social order and one of the means of our influence in whole the Syria’2.

The majority of Circassians who served in army during Osmans’ ruling in police divisions and preferred military service any other occupations with pleasure accepted the offer to stand under French direction. As special regiment they were included in police-military foundations – ‘The Special troops’ (Troupes speciales), which were completed by the representatives of ethnic and religious minorities, and some times even by different crime elements. In the middle 20-s ‘Special troops’ concluded 8 Circassian squadrons, 7 Lebanese squadrons, 6 Drouz squadrons, 3 Kurdish squadrons, 1 Khaurani (?) squadron, 4 squadrons of people from other origin3.

Approximately one squadron concluded 100-150 men; thus we may suppose that the number of Circassians was more than 800 persons. ‘Special troops’ were under direction of captain Collet. The heads of squadrons were mostly French officers. The first commander of Circassian regiment became Circassian noble Osman Abey (?).

Circassian regiment included assembled hundred of crime elements of different ethnic origins. And the soldiers of that hundred got the same Circassian national dresses as entire regiment’s uniform, that made sad reputation for whole the regiment; during the fighting operations crime hundred was speeding to rob and rape the civilians. This behavior many times caused indignation of other squadrons of regiment, and often between them blared up the armed skirmishes and even firings. With the time under the claims of Circassian soldiers crime hundred was excluded from the regiment. The major function of that regiment as whole the ‘Special troops’ was the fight against guerilla movement and thuggery.

July 18, 1925 in the district of Djebel-Drouz (?) blared up massive anti-French rebellion, which was led by one of Drouzes’ (?) feudal Sultan Al-Atrash (?). To put down that rebellion the punitive expedition of 4 thousand persons under the direction of general Moucheau (?) was sent, it consisted of non-French divisions: Moroccans, Tunisians, and Senegals4. Circassian regiment was included in expedition forces, as well. The battles deployed with the success for rebels. They could win few times. Soon the rebellion spread to other districts of the country, and by the October the center relocated into Damascus.

The Circassian soldiers distinguished by their martial and discipline habits very often were assigned difficult and complicated missions. Thus, in October 13 to inflict a sudden thrust onto enemies’ power in the oasis Gouta (?) near the Damascus, were sent Circassian squadrons. After night battle they returned into French camp with 115 prisoners and 24 rebels’ bodies. French troops bombarded by artillery insurgent Damascus during 2 days. In the October 15 under the order the Circassian horsemen once again undertook the raid against Gouta (?), the result was 2 burned villages where the rebels took shelter. During the fight close to Damascus Circassian regiment had significant losses. Just during the attack of rebels onto French military camp near the eastern gate of Damascus were killed 12 Circassian soldiers5.

Mandate commission 10^th session of League of Nations held in November 1926 noticed that Circassian regiment was the first-rate military division and commended its important contribution with the crushing of rebels’ divisions in awkward hilly region6.

During the rebellions of 1925-1927 years Arab rebels and especially Drouzes (?) very often attacked Circassian villages. Thus, while Circassian men were fighting in the Gouta (?) Arabs decided to attack Circassian village Marj-Sultan (?), located close to Damascus. Early morning Arabian group numbered of 5-7 thousand men surrounded the village and started to shoot it from the cannons and rifles. In the response the village dwellers became to shoot from the windows of their houses and other buildings. The firing was about several hours. Not being determined Arabs decided to withdraw. According to the village dwellers losses of attacked, both killed and wounded, were not less than 200 persons. Circassian lost few as killed7. These events caused to a stimulus to enter new volunteers in Circassian regiment.

The rebellion of 1925-1927 spread almost all the Syria caused tragic consequences as to Arabs as to the other peoples of religion and ethnic minorities. All they had very serious losses. Circassian had significant losses, as well. According to De Prou (?), that were about 302 killed and 600 wounded persons8.

After the rebellion was put down French authorities became to increase the number of ‘Special troops’. Thus, in 1930 they already included 9500, in 1936 year about 14000 persons9. Being noticeably depleted Circassian regiment also increased by 7 new squadrons10. Instead of killed during the fights commander Osman Abey, was assigned another Circassian noble Taufik Anzor (?).

French officers tried to enclose Circassian nobles, leaders and officers. Collet, by himself often spent time among officers of Circassian regiment, who according to the memoirs of his wife Ann Collet gathered at their home11. With the time French could acquire pretty numerous groups of their adherents among influential Circassians. They were mostly the nobles and servicemen of ‘Special troops’. The appointment of one of the great Circassian landlord Damad Ahmed Nami (?) onto post of head in Syrian ‘national’ government assigned by new Supreme Governor Henri De Jouvenel (?) was not occasional. That was the son of a chairman in municipality of Beirut and grandson of one of the Hediv’s (?) officers in Egypt Ibrahim-pasha, who stayed in Beirut after leaving Egyptian troops. Ahmet Nami was married with the daughter of Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid II. He got the military education in Istanbul and Paris. For the French people Ahmed Nami was interesting because of his convinced opinion on French protectorate in Syria12.

During the French Mandate developed quite favorable conditions for growing Circassian national movement (political and cultural). In the middle 20s years a groups under the patronage of Amin Samgugh (?) started an activity for the allowance of League of Nations to get for the Circassians a status of national minority and found autonomy within the district of Kuneytra (?). Group tried to obtain special seats dedicated for the deputies representatives of Circassian community in Syrian parliament, also they demanded to give to the Circassian tongue official status within the Kuneytra (?) region, rights to establish national schools, periodical press etc. These demands were given to the French administration, but not being in right to decide such a questions they gave the materials into League of Nations13. During the 11^th session of League of Nations Mandate commission held in the end of June – beginning of July 1927 was not paid appropriate attention to the Circassian petition. Subsequently there were announced that ‘the foundation of Circassian national center is missed any base’14.

Very actively displayed himself in this movement the head of the activists’ group Amin Samgugh (?) (1900-1953). Being a son of landlord first he got the education of agronomist in Beirut, then he graduated political economy in Sorbonne University. During the studies in Paris Samgugh (?) diligently learned social sciences collected a scientific materials on his nation’s history15. After he returned in Syria Samgugh (?) was appointed on the post of Kuneytra municipality chairman, during that time he focused efforts most onto field of developing of economical situation. Were launched oil seeking measures, building of the roads, streets were covered with the asphalt, many trees were planted etc.

In 1929 year the Circassian community once again prepared the appeal to apply into League of Nations about their national autonomy within the limits of Kuneytra (?) region. However in this time the consideration of this question was dragged on17. Only after repeated applications the appeal was taken under consideration by 23^rd session of Mandate commission, which was held in June 1933. Acknowledging the reasonable demands on preserving of native language and establishment of national schools, however, the commission members rejected the project of the national Circassian autonomy foundation18.

By the end of 1931, Amin Samgugh (?) was proposed a candidate in Syrian parliament, where 2 seats were dedicated to Circassian community representatives. Having a rigid competition with candidates from new Circassian ‘Arabian’ group led by strong landowners’ clans Bagh and Dougouz (?), Samgugh (?) could win the elections.

Unlike the political activity more successfully Samgugh’s (?) groups had deals with fields of culture and education. In 1927 they founded ‘The Circassian society of education and culture promotion’, which put the goals of comprehensive activity directed onto preserving of native language and traditions; promote to develop national literature; in spite of past failures they still wanted to obtain for Circassian community the grant of national autonomy within the Kuneytra (?) district.

At that time, was already taken new Circassian alphabet based on Latin characters. They started to publish booklets and textbooks for the pupils. The society launched newspaper ‘Marj’19, the main editor became Tarik Hagur (?). In newspapers were published different articles on history, culture and other problems of Circassian people in Syria and other countries. The numbers were being sent in Circassian communities of Transjordan (?), Egypt and Turkey.

In 1933 Samgugh’s (?) group, after the necessary money were collected, started the first national 10 years school in Kuneytra (?), where supposed to study children from whole the district. Financially school maintained at the donations of people and at the profits of Samgugh (?) and other patriots’ stores. To teach children in that schools were invited teachers from various Circassian regions of Syria. They were Samgugh (?) by himself, Yahya Sharkas (?) from Minbadj (?), Akif Hunag (?) from Ain-Ziwan (?), Fahri Haju (?) from Kunetra (?), Ismail Anzor from Rakka20. Besides of general education subjects there were thought Circassian language, folk traditions, songs and dances. Teachers tried to instill children patriot spirit and love towards Homeland.

Whole the activity of society directed onto preserving of national culture was in permanent opposition from the side of Circassian ‘Arabic’ group; the number of latter increased in the end of 30s. This group headed by few landowners always kept in close relations with Arabian nationalist parties and organizations (‘Khizb ash-Shaab’ (?), ‘Qaumi Souri’ (?) and so on). Emphasizing the religious and mutual Syrian unity, they manifested against foundation of Circassian autonomy and called Circassians to support Arabs with their liberation movement.

The second part of 30s marked with upswing of Arab liberation movement in the country. The French authorities forced to refuse politic of power and start to find solutions through the negotiations with leaders of Arabian national bloc. In the September of 1936 between France and Syria was signed the treaty, according to what the latter is acknowledged as independent state. The Mandate announced as a subject to be abolished within the time of 3 years from its ratification. The reinforcement of Arabian liberation movement had as a result attack towards ethnic and religious minorities by Syrian government. September 9, 1936 took place armed clash between 2 Circassian youth groups: adherents of Amin Samgugh (?) and members of new ‘Arabian’ organization ‘Iron shirts’. Both sides had losses21. This incident was used by Syrian government (national government) as an excuse to condemn ‘The Circassian society of education and culture promotion’ in collaboration with French. In connection with that any society’s activity was prohibited at all. Amin Samgugh (?) was discharged from the post of chairman in Kunetra’s (?) municipality.

Despite of failures Samgugh’s (?) groups established new organization named ‘Jolan’ (?), which put the aim to promote for Circassians to return the homeland Caucasus22. The members of that organization applied into Soviet embassy with appeal about the rights repatriate, but were refused. After the activity of organization froze. After all that Amin Samgugh (?) didn’t participate in any political struggle, he just continued teaching in the school and his scientific research.

By the beginning of 1938 year Circassians living in the districts of Hama (?) and Homs (?) appealed in parliament of Syria about rights to found national autonomy, open the national schools etc. The appeal consisted of 11 points. Parliament gave them negative response, and in the March 1938 during 11^th conference of 34^th general session of commission the application was discussed. Again the resolution was the same negative – approval only was attained on the points concerned learning of native language in the schools. The rest demands were refused because of not being religious minority23.

In the beginning of World War II Syria being a territory of the battles was declared as a state of emergency area. In the June of 1940 German and Italian troops undertook the offensive towards Paris. In addition the government of France turned out to be completely incapable to organize the resistance against aggressors. Prevailed advocates of capitulation. Commander-in-Chief of the country Veygan (?) frankly advocated for the capitulation, arguing about inexpedient resistance. Eventually the Prime Minister marshal Peten (?) signed an armistice with Germany on humiliating conditions. German troops occupied Northern France and whole the Atlantic coast. French armed forces except Navy, air force and small group of troops to maintain the order had to demobilize and disarm. The government of France was located in small town Vishi (?), arranged in unoccupied territory dictatorial regime and became to make a country a supplier of raw materials and manpower for the Germany military needs. Just to maintain occupants’ units France spent every day about 400 million francs. Vishi’s (?) puppet government presented to fascist Germany its military bases, airdromes and ports located in French Middle Eastern and Northern African colonies.

Vishi (?) government appointed as Supreme Commissar of Syria and Lebanon general Dents, endowing him all the authorities necessary for using that region in economic and strategic interests of the Germany. However after establishing Vishi (?) regime and entering occupants powers many of French patriot servicemen denied to subordinate new command and became to cross the boundary and concentrate in Transjordan (?), where at that time the British army units and the troops of ‘Free France’ located.

The Circassian regiment also turned to be in the camp of troops of ‘Free France’. In the night of May 19, 1941, the commander of ‘Free France’ units in the Middle East general Catrou (?) held secret meeting on the Syrian-Transjordanian (?) boundary. At that meeting colonel Collet who declared himself against Vishi (?) regime, was ordered to organize the transition of boundary by Circassian squadrons and add them into allied troops. Afterwards general Catrou (?) wrote, that fact very disturbed and embittered general Dents (?), because the miss of that squadrons deprived his south front the mobile covering forces. In the June 1941 the Circassian squadrons took part in offensive onto Damascus with allied troops25. June 14, 1941 troops of general Dents surrendered and the country passed under the control of British units and ‘Free France’. Circassian squadrons were located along the Syrian boundary.

During the World War II in Syria have activated the Arabian liberation movement. Nationalistic parties and groups ‘Arabian Renaissance’; ‘Syrian national Socialist Party’ and others stared to claim the cancellation of Mandate and withdrawal for foreign troops from the territory of Syria and Lebanon. In the September 14, 1941 the command of ‘Free France’ declared independence of the Syria, and in the November of 1941 independence of the Lebanon. The clauses on French Mandate were removed from the constitutions of Syria and Lebanon in the December of 194126.

Meanwhile among Circassian population continued to grow the number of adherents of Arabian liberation movement. One of the former officers of ‘Special troops’ from Circassian regiment Ihsan Shurdoum (?) formed a detachment of Circassian volunteers and supported Arabian patriots.

In the May 1945 Syria and Lebanon disturbances among people were spread all over, that happened because of disembarkation in Beirut new contingent of French troops without Lebanese government approval. In different part of the region took place manifestations and demonstrations, some of them finished by clashes of Arabs against French units. Ihsan Shurdoum’s (?) detachment took very active part in these events. At the Djisra (?) town people’s request Shurdoum’s (?) cavalrymen successfully attacked French detachment, which caused violence to civilians. The combat was stopped only because of arrived British troops. The losses from French side finally came to 14 persons killed and 30 as wounded27. In the May 13, 1945 Circassian cavalrymen attacked French soldiers in Idlib (?), which started firing into peaceful demonstrators trying to change national Syria’s flags instead of French ones28.

Under the suppression of world leading countries French authorities were forced to cease the repressions against Syrian population. July 8, 1945 ‘Special troops’ were given under control Syrian government. In the April 17, 1946 all the foreign troops left territory of the Syria.

3^rd chapter ‘CIRCASSIAN COMMUNITY DURING FRENCH MANDATE AND INDEPENDENT SYRIA’, ‘Circassians during French Mandate’ the passage from the book “CIRCASSIANS IN SYRIA”, Nalchik 1993, written by Anzor Kushhabiy is translated from Russian into English by Ali Berzeg.

___________________________

(?) With this symbol I have marked the persons’ names geographical spots and peoples’ names, with English spelling of which I am not sure.

NOTES. (Exactly from the book)

1 Catroux. Deux mission en Moyen - Orient (1912—1922). P., 1958. P. 106.

2 Ibid. P. 104 - 105.

3 Moestracci N. La Syrie contemporaine. P., 1930. P. 162.

4 Луцкий В. Б. Национально-освободительная война в Сирии (1925 - 1927). М. 1964. С. 159.

5 Mac-Callum E. P., The Nationalist Crusade in Syria. N. Y., 1928. P. 126, 130; Khoury Ph Syria and the French Mandate. L., 1987. P. 175.

6 Societé des Nations. Commission permanente des mandats. 10 session. Geneve, 1926. P. 152.

7 Маф Адиб. 1920 г. р. сел. Марж-Султан. Записано 21 декабря 1990 г.; Хуаж Мурат. 1909 г. р. сел. Марж-Султан. Записано 21 декабря 1990 г.

8 de Рrоuх. Les Tcherkesses. // La France Méditerranéene ET Africain. P., 1938. Fasc. 4. P. 83.

9 Longrigg S. H. Syria and Lebanon under French Mandate. Oxford, 1958. P. 269.

10 de Proux. Op. cit. P. 84 - 85.

11 Колле Ан. Tapик Халас. Дамаск, 1941. С. 65 - 66.

12 Khoury Ph. Op. cit. P. 197; Longrigg S. H. Op. cit. P. 174

13 de Proux. Op. cit. P. 84 - 85.

14 Societé des Nations. Commission permanente des Mandats. 11 session. Geneve, 1927. P. 152.

15 Биография Самгуга Амина. Составитель Самгуг Берзедж. Дамаск.

16 de Proux. Op. cit. P. 86s.

17 Peoples and cultures of the Middle East. L. - N. Y., 1969. P. 30. В опубликованных материалах Мандатной комиссии Лиги Наций за 1929 - 1932 годы упоминаний о требованиях сирийских черкесов не обнаружено.

18 Societe des Nations. Commission permanente des Mandats. 23 session. Geneve, 1933. P. 145 - 146.

19 Газета «Марж» продолжала издаваться до 1932 года.

20 Биография Самгуга Амина. Указ. соч.

21 Bagh A. S. La region de Djolan. Etude de geographie regionale. P., 1958. P. 331; de Proux. Op. cit. P. 86s.

22 de Proux. Op. cit. P. 68.

23 League of Nations. Permanente Mandate Commission. Minutes of the 34 session. Geneva, 1938. P. 101 - 102, 219 - 220.

24 Вторая мировая война. Краткая история. М., 1984. С. 55 - 63.

25 Catroux. Dans la bataile de Mediterranée Egypte - Levant. Afrique du Nord 1940 - 1944.

mentaires. P., 1949. P. 126 - 129; de Голль Шарль. Военные мемуары. Перевод с французского. Т. 1. М., 1960. С. 208.

26 Новейшая история арабских стран Азии. 1917 - 1985 М., 1988. С. 37 - 38.

27 «Аш-Шабаб». Дамаск. 15 июня 1945 г.

28 «Аш-Шабаб». Дамаск. 20 июня 1945 г.